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Neonicotinoids are particularly important in any discussion of pollinators in an agricultural context because of their use patterns, physical properties, environmental persistence, and their high toxicity to bees. This chapter discusses the wide range of research on how neonicotinoids affect both managed and wild bee populations in particular. It reviews levels of environmental contamination and how this affects topical and oral exposure routes. The chapter also addresses sublethal effects and briefly discusses the interaction of different stressors. It includes a number of case studies showing the negative effects of neonicotinoids on a range of bee species.
- 1 Introduction
- 2 What are neonicotinoids?
- 3 Why are neonicotinoids such a concern for pollinators?
- 4 Environmental contamination and pollinator exposure
- 5 Toxicity and effects across pollinator taxa and contexts
- 6 Sublethal effects on bees and interactions among multiple stressors
- 7 Case studies illustrating consequences for pollinator populations and pollination
- 8 Conclusion
- 9 Where to look for further information
- 10 Acknowledgements
- 11 References