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This is the fourth volume in the series�Artists' Pigments: A Handbook of their History and Characteristics�published by National Gallery of Art in association with Archetype Publications Ltd.�
Each volume concentrates on different pigments (see the contents for each volume). The series is an Encyclopedic Reference intended for:
-The practicing artist to learn a pigment's color, hiding power, light-fastness, toxicity,
compatibility;
-The art historian to know how an artist worked, what pigments were used, whether they were pure or mixed, opaque or tranparent, layered or not;
-The conservator to devise techniques necessary for the care and conservation of works of art, to determine what is original, to repair damages, to compensate for missing portions of a painted surface;
-The curator and the connoisseur to know the history of manufacture and use of pigments, to authenticate and assign probable dates to works of art;
-The conservation scientist to learn identification methods used, including optical microscopy, microchemical tests, X-ray diffraction, infrared and reflectance
spectrophotometry, and electron microscopy.
Foreword
Preface
Introduction
Pigments based on Carbon
John Winter and Elisabeth West FitzHugh
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Pigment definition
1.2 Current terminology
1.2.1 Graphite
1.2.2 Lampblack
1.2.3 Carbon black
1.2.4 Vegetable or plant blacks
1.2.5 Ivory/bone black or animal black
1.2.6 Black earths
2.0 History
2.1 Archaic, historical, and other names
2.1.1 Graphite
2.1.2 Lampblack
2.1.3 Carbon black
2.1.4 Vegetable or plant blacks
2.1.5 Vegetable and/or animal blacks
2.1.6 Black earths
2.1.7 Coals
2.1.8 Other names
2.1.9 Classical names
2.1.10 European pigment collections
2.2 History of use
2.2.1 Use as a painting material
2.2.2 Use as a drawing material
2.2.3 Use in plastics
2.2.4 Use in inks
2.3 Dates of use
3.0 General pigment properties
3.1 Color and spectral reflectance
3.2 Hiding power, tinting strength, and blackness index
3.3 Permanence
3.4 Chemical properties
3.5 Compatibility
3.6 Oil absorption and grinding qualities: miscibility and wetting
3.7 Toxicity
3.8 Appearance in ultraviolet and infrared
4.0 Composition
4.1 Chemical composition and properties
4.2 Structural chemistry of carbon
4.2.1 Graphite
4.2.2 Noncrystalline carbons
4.3 Types of carbon
4.3.1 Graphite
4.3.2 Carbons formed in the gas phase
4.3.3 Cokes
4.3.4 Chars
4.3.5 Coals
4.4 Practical pigments
4.4.1 Graphitic pigments
4.4.2 Soots and smokes
4.4.3 Pigments of vegetable origin
4.4.4 Pigment of animal origin
4.4.5 Coals and related materials
4.5 Sources and manufacture
4.5.1 Graphites
4.5.2 Lampblack
4.5.3 Carbon blacks
4.5.4 Vegetable blacks
4.5.5 Animal blacks
4.5.6 Bister
4.6 Adulteration and sophistication
5.0 Identification and characterization
5.1 Chemical methods
5.1.1 Carbonaceous phase
5.1.2 Noncarbon phases
5.2 Optical microscopy
5.2.1 Dispersions
5.2.2 Cross sections
5.3 Electron microscopy
5.4 X-ray diffraction
5.5 X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy
5.6 Infrared spectroscopy
5.7 Criteria for identification
5.7.1 Identification as carbon
5.7.2 Identification of secondary constituents
5.7.3 Identification of type and source
6.0 Occurrences
Iron oxide pigments: natural and synthetic
Kate Helwig
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Pigment definition
1.2 Current terminology
2.0 History
2.1 Archaic and historical names
2.1.1 Rubrica
2.1.2 Sinopsis
2.1.3 Hematite
2.1.4 Ocher, earth
2.1.5 Indian red and English red
2.1.6 Spanish brown
2.1.7 Venetian red
2.1.8 Raw and burnt umber
2.1.9 Raw and burnt sienna
2.1.10 Calcined yellow earth
2.1.11 Calcined iron sulfate (colcothar, burnt vitriol)
2.1.12 Iron scale (Terra di Campana, Scaglia di Ferro)
2.1.13 Croccus martis, mars colors
2.2 History of use
2.2.1 Early history
2.2.2 From the Middle Ages to the end of the eighteenth century
2.2.3 Nineteenth and twentieth centuries
2.3 Dates of use
3.0 General pigments properties
3.1 Color and spectral reflectance
3.1.1 Visible and ultraviolet
3.1.2 Infrared
3.2 Hiding power and tinting strength
3.3 Permanence
3.4 Chemical and physical properties
3.5 Compatibility
3.6 Oil absorption, grinding qualities, and effect on drying
3.7 Toxicity
4.0 Composition
4.1 Crystal structure and chemical composition
4.1.1 Crystal structure
4.1.2 Chemical composition: natural earths
4.1.3 Chemical composition: synthetic iron oxides
4.2 Sources
4.2.1 Natural earth pigments
4.3.2 Synthetic iron oxide pigments
4.4 Adulteration and sophistication
5.0 Identification and characterization
5.1 Light and electron microscopy
5.1.1 Red iron oxide pigments
5.1.2 Yellow iron oxide pigments
5.1.3 Raw and burnt umber
5.1.4 Black iron oxide pigments
5.2 Chemical identification
5.3 Instrumental methods of analysis
5.3.1 X-ray diffraction
5.3.2 Infrared spectroscopy
5.3.3 Raman spectroscopy
5.3.4 X-ray spectroscopy
5.3.5 Mossbauer spectroscopy
5.4 Criteria for identification
6.0 Occurrences
Asphalt
Catarina I. Bothe
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Pigment definition
1.2 Current terminology
2.0 History
2.1 Archaic and historical names
2.1.1 Asphalt
2.1.2 Bitumen
2.1.3 Tar and patche
2.1.4 Bergharz, erdharz, judenharz, and judenleim
2.1.5 Antwerp brown
2.1.6 Mummy
2.2 History of use
2.2.1 The preparation and use of asphalt color in nonaqueous media
2.2.2 The preparation and use of aqueous asphalt colors
2.2.3 The preparation and use of asphalt varnish
2.3 Dates of use
3.0 General pigment properties
3.1 Color and spectral reflectance
3.2 Optical properties: transparency and tinting strength
3.3 Permanence
3.3.1 Resistance to light
3.3.2 Migration
3.3.3 Wrinkling and cracking
3.4 Chemical properties
3.4.1 Solubility
3.4.2 Thermoplasticity, fusibility, combustibility, and viscoelasticity
3.4.3 Oxidation and hardening
3.5 Compatibility
3.6 Oil absorption and grinding qualities
3.7 Toxicity
4.0 Composition
4.1 Chemical composition
4.1.1 Bitumen
4.1.2 Mineral water
4.2 Sources
4.2.1 Raw natural asphalts
4.2.2 Asphalt colors
4.3 Preparation
4.3.1 Natural Asphalts
4.3.2 Refined Asphalts
4.3.3 Artificial asphalt substitutes
4.4 Adulteration and sophistication
5.0 Identification and characterization
5.1 Optical and chemical microscopy
5.2 Chemical identification
5.3 Instrumental methods of analysis
5.3.1 Mass spectrometry
5.4 Criteria for identification
6.0 Occurrences
Cobalt blue
Ashok Roy
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Pigment definition
1.2 Current terminology
2.0 History
2.1 Archaic and historical names
2.2 History of use
3.0 General pigment properties
3.1 Color and spectral reflectance
3.2 Optical properties
3.3 Permanence
3.4 Chemical properties
3.5 Compatibility
3.6 Oil absorption and grinding qualities
3.7 Toxicity
4.0 Composition
4.1 Chemical composition and structure
4.2 Sources
4.3 Preparation
4.4 Adulteration and sophistication
5.0 Identification and characterization
5.1 Optical and chemical microscopy
5.2 Chemical identification
5.3 Scanning electron microscopy
5.4 Instrumental methods of analysis
5.4.1 X-ray diffraction
5.4.2 Infrared, raman, and visible spectroscopy
5.4.3 Spectrochemical analysis
5.4.4 X-ray spectroscopy (x-ray fluorescence) and energy dispersive x-ray spectroscopy
5.4.5 Neutron activation analysis
5.5 Criteria for identification
6.0 Occurrences
Arylide (Hansa) yellow pigments
Susan Lake and Suzanne Quillen Lomax
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Pigments definition
1.2 Current terminology
2.0 History
2.1 Archaic and historical names
2.2 Dates and circumstances of development
2.3 Early objections to the Hansa yellows
2.4 History of use
2.5 Current use
3.0 General pigment properties
3.1 Hiding power and tinting strength
3.2 Color and spectral reflectance
3.3 Permanence
3.4 Chemical properties
3.5 Compatibility
3.6 Oil absorption and grinding qualities
3.7 Toxicity
4.0 Composition
4.1 Chemical composition
4.2 Sources
4.3 Preparation
4.4 Adulteration and sophistication
5.0 Identification and characterization
5.1 Light and electron microscopy
5.2 Instrumental methods of analysis
5.2.1 X-ray diffraction
5.2.2 Infrared, raman, and ultraviolet and visible spectroscopy
5.2.3 Chromatography
5.2.4 Mass spectrometry
5.3 Criteria for identification
6.0 Occurrences
Contributors
Index