...an encyclopaedic study of the craft and in particular the raw materials of dyeing...the photographs and reproduction are of excellent quality, and the layout and production make this large amount of material easy to navigate...Natural Dyes�is the dyestuff equivalent of the�Artists' Pigments�series and�The Pigment Compendium�rolled in to one. It is a very impressive achievement and a very desirable book indeed.

Foreword

Acknowledgements

About this book

Abbreviations and acronyms

PART 1. THE ART OF DYEING

The experience of centuries

Dyeing techniques and their chemical principles

Direct dyeing � Vat dyes: indigo and shellfish purple � Mordant dyes

When to dye - fibre, yarn or cloth?

Fibre or fleece dyeing � Yarn or skein dyeing � Piece dyeing

Recipes: preparation of fibres, mordants and dyes

Preparation of the fibres � Mordanting � Dyeing

Kusaki-zome: a Japanese synthesis of ancient tradition and modern chemistry

The discovery and mastery of mordants and mordanting

Aluminium mordants

Native alums � Manufactured alums � Plants as sources of aluminium

Iron mordants

Ferrous sulphate, copperas or green vitriol � Iron acetate � Black mud

Copper mordants

Tin mordants

Chromium mordants

PART 2. DYE-PLANTS

Reds, violets, russets: safflower and quinone dyes

Safflower

Safflower (Carthamus tinctorius�L. Compositae)

Naphthoquinone dye-plants

-Purple-dyeing Boraginiacea

Alkanet or dyer's bugloss (Alkanna tinctoria�(L.) Tausch.) � Hairy onosma (Onosma echioides�L.) ��Soghagul�(Arnebia euchroma�(Royle) I.M. Johnston) ��Zi cao or murasaki�(Lithospermum erythrorhizon�Siebold Zuccarini) � Carolina puccoon or hairy puccoon (Lithospermum caroliniense�(Walt. ex J.F. Gmel.) MacMill) ��Jinin mutum�(Arnebia hispidissima�(Sieber ex Lehm.) DC)

-Fawn-dyeing Juglandaceae: walnut's of Europe, Asia and America

Walnut (Juglans regia�L.) � Black walnut (Juglans nigra�L.) � Butternut tree (Juglans cinerea�L.) � Peruvian or Ecuador walnut (Juglans neotropica�Diels)

-Fawn/brown dyeing Ebenaceae: the African equivalents of walnut dyes

Magic gwarri (Euclea divinorum�Hiern) � Bluebush (Diospyros lycioides Desf.)

Henna (Lythraceae): the universal dye-plant

Henna or Egyptian privet (Lawsonia inermis�L. (=�L. alba�Lamk.))

Anthraquinone dye-plants

-Russet-dyeing Polygonaceae: rhubarbs, docks and sorrels

Medicinal or Chinese rhubarb (Rheum officinale�Baillon and�Rheum palmatum�L.) � Garden rhubarb (Rheum x hybridum�Murray) � Himalayan rhubarbs (Rheum australe�D. Don.,�Rheum moorcroftianum�Royle,�Rheum nobile�Hook. f. & Thoms.) � Monk's rhubarb (Rumex alpinus�L.) � Patience dock (Rumex patientia�L.) � Broad-leaved dock (Rumex obtusifolius�L.) � Curly or yellow dock (Rumex crispus�L.) � Garden sorrel or sour dock (Rumex acetosa�L.) ��Mekmoko�(Rumex abyssinicus�Jacq.) � Canaigre or tanner's dock (Rumex hymenosepalus�Torrey)

-Reddish-brown to purplish-dyeing Rhamnaceae: buckthorns,�pitti�and�laba

Alder buckthorn (Frangula alnus�Miller) � Common buckthorn (Rhamnus cathartica�L.) � Evergreen buckthorn (Rhamnus alaternus�L.) � Red creeper,�pitti�or�raktapita�(Ventilago madraspatana�Gaertner) ��Laba�(Ventilago neocaledonica�Schlechter)

A world of reds: Rubiaceae plants rich in red anthraquinone dyes

The queen of the reds: dyer's madder

Dyer's madder (Rubia tinctorum L.)

-European Rubiaceae with red colorants

Wild madder (Rubia peregrina�L.) � Dyer's woodruff (Asperula tinctoria�L.) � Sweet woodruff (Galium odoratum�(L.) Scop.) � Yellow lady's or Our Lady's bedstraw (Galium verum�L.) � Great lady's or hedge bedstraw (Galium mollugo�L.) � Scotch mist (Galium sylvaticum�L.) � Northern bedstraw (Galium boreale�L.)

Asian Rubiaceae with red colorants

-Madders (Rubia�spp.)

Indian madder or munjeet (Rubia cordifolia�L.) � Naga madder (Rubia sikkimensis�Kurz) � Japanese madder or�akane�(Rubia akane�Nakai)

-Other Rubiaceae of Asia and Oceania

Chay root (Oldenlandia umbellata�L.) � Indian mulberry,�al�or�mengkudu�(Morinda citrifolia�L.) ��Mengkudu hutan�or�mengkudu akar�(Morinda umbellata�L.)

African Rubiaceae with red colorants

Ouanda�(Morinda geminata�DC) � Brimstone tree or oruwo (Morinda lucida�Benth.) ��Bongo�(Danais fragrans�(Lam.) Pers.) ��Bongontany�(Pentanisia veronicoides�(Baker) K. Schum.)

Rubiaceae of New Zealand with orange colorants

Raurekau�(Coprosma australis�(A. Rich.) Robinson) � Other�Coprosma�spp.

American�Rubiaceae�with red colorants

Dye or stiff marsh bedstraw (Galium tinctorium�L.) ��Raiz de te�ir�or�relb�n�(Relbunium hypocarpium�(L.) Hemsl. ssp.�hypocarpium) � Other�Relbunium�spp.

A wealth of yellows: plants containing flavonoids

Yellow dye-plants of major economic importance: from craft to industrial scale

-Yellow dye-plants containing luteolin

Weld or dyer's mignonette (Reseda luteola�L. Resedaceae) � Sawwort (Serratula tinctoria�L. Compositae) � Dyer's broom or dyer's greenweed (Genista tinctoria�L. Leguminosae) � Flax-leaved daphne or Mediterranean mezereon (Daphne gnidium�L. Thymelaeaceae) � Other species of Thymelaeaceae

-Avignon and Persian berries: Rhamnaceae giving yellow dyes

Dyer's or rock buckthorn (Rhamnus saxatilis�Jacq. Rhamnaceae) ��Rhamnus lycioides�L. Rhamnaceae � Other buckthorn fruit sources of yellow dyes

-Yellow dyewoods

Young fustic, Venetian sumac or wig tree (Cotinus coggygria�Scop. Anacardiaceae) � Dyer's mulberry or old fustic (Maclura tinctoria�(L.) D. Don ex Steud. Moraceae) � Black or quercitron oak (Quercus velutina�Lam. Fagaceae)

Flavonoid yellow dye-plants of Asia

-Luteolin-containing grasses (Gramineae)

Kobunagusa�(Arthraxon hispidus�(Thunb.) Makino) � Chinese grass or eulalia (Miscanthus tinctorius�(Sieb. & Steud.) Hackel)

-Dyes used by the desert nomads from Arabia to central Asia

Arfaj�(Rhanterium epapposum�Oliv. Compositae) � Yellow larkspur (Delphinium semibarbatum�Bien. ex Boiss. Ranunculaceae) � Bastard hemp (Datisca cannabina�L. Datiscaceae)

-Asian yellow-dyeing Leguminosae and�kamala�(Euphorbiaceae)

Japanese pagoda tree or Chinese yellow berries (Sophora japonica�L.) � Bastard teak or Bengal kino (Butea monosperma�Taubert) ��Wars�or wild hops (Flemingia grahamiana�Wight & Arn.) ��Kamala�or monkey face tree (Mallotus philippensis�(Lam.) M�ll. Arg.)

-Yellow dyewoods of Asia (Moraceae)

Jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus�Lam. and�Artocarpus asperulus�Gagnepain) ��Kayu kuning�or�soga tegeran�(Maclura cochinchinensis�(Lour.) Corner)

American yellow dye-plants containing flavonoids

-Another yellow dyewood of the Moraceae family

Osage orange (Maclura pomifera�(Rafinesque) C.K. Schneider)

-American yellow-dyeing Compositae

Canadian golden rod (Solidago canadensis�L.) � Common or rubber rabbitbrush

(Chrysothamnus nauseosus�(Pallas ex Pursh) Britton) ��Ch'illka ch'illka�(Baccharis salicifolia�(Ruiz & Pav�n) Pers.) � Colombian�chilca�(Baccharis latifolia�(Ruiz & Pav�n) Pers. = B.�floribunda�Kunth.) � Quito�chilca�(Baccharis quitensis�HBK) ��Pahuau�or tickseed (Coreopsis�sp.) ��Kiko�or�uchuj ppirka�(Bidens triplinervia�Kunth)

Flavonoids, but not yellow

Plant sources of anthocyanin colorants

Fruit � Flowers � Leaves

-Anthocyanin dyes from fruits

Bilberry, whortleberry, blaeberry (Vaccinium myrtillus�L. Ericaceae) � Other speceis of bilberry used for dyeing � Elder (Sambucus nigra�L. Caprifoliaceae) � Dwarf elder, danewort (Sambucus ebulus�L. Caprifoliaceae) � Grapevine (Vitis vinifera�L. Vitaceae) � Other berries used for dyeing

-Anthocyanin dyes from flowers

Hollyhock (Alcea rosea�L. Malvaceae) � Roselle or�karkadeh�(Hibiscus sabdariffa�L. Malvaceae)

-Leaves as sources of anthocyanin dyes

Red sorghum or dyer's guinea corn (Sorghum bicolor�(L.) Moench subsp. bicolor Gramineae) � Chica or cricket vine (Arrabidaea chica�(Humb. & Bonpl.) B. Verl.

Bignoniaceae)

Logwood

Logwood tree (Haematoxylum campechianum�L. Leguminosae)

Trees with soluble redwoods: brazilwoods (Leguminosae, Caesalpinioideae)

Sappanwood (Caesalpinia sappan�L.) � Pernambuco or brazilwood (Caesalpinia echinata�Lamarck) � Peachwood, nicaragua wood (Haematoxylum brasiletto�Karsten)

Trees with insoluble redwoods: red sandalwood, narrawood, barwood, camwood

-Leguminosae, Papilioniodeae, Dalbergiae

Red sandalwood, sanderstree (Pterocarpus santalinus�L.) � Narrawood, Andaman redwood or padauk (Pterocarpus indicus�Willd.) � Barwood, African coralwood or African padauk (Pterocarpus soyauxii�Taubert) ��Tukula�or�mkulungu�(Pterocarpus tinctorius�Welw.)

-Leguminosae, Papilionoideae, Sophoreae

Camwood (Baphia nitida�Afzel. ex Lodd.)

Yellow, but not flavonoids

Carotenoid dyes from flowers and fruits

Saffron (Crocus sativus�L. Iridaceae) � Cape or Gardenia jasmine (Gardenia augusta�(L.) Merrill Rubiaceae) � Night jasmine or tree of sorrow (Nyctanthes arbortristis�L. Oleaceae) � Indian toon or Indian mahogany (Toona ciliata�M.J. Roemer Meliaceae) � Annatto (Bixa orellana�L. Bixaceae) � Tiriba (Cochlospermum tinctorium�Perr. ex A.Rich Cochlospermaceae)

The most popular yellow colorant in the world

Turmeric (Curcuma longa�L. (= C.�domestica�Valeton) Zingiberaceae)

-Asian sources of berberine yellows

Chinese or Japanese barberry (Berberis thunbergii�DC Berberidaceae) � Other speice of�Berberis�and�Mahonia�used for dyeing in Asia � Amur cork tree (Phellodendron amurense�Rupr. Rutaceae) ��Huangteng�(Fibraurea tinctoria�Lour.) and�Fibraurea recisa�Pierre Menispermaceae)

-Plant sources of berberine and other yellow alkaloid dyes in America and Africa

Oregon grape (Mahonia aquifolium�(Pursh) Nutt. Berberidaceae) � Other American species of�Berberis�and�Mahonia�used as dyes in America � Goldthread (Coptis trifolia�(L.) Salisbury Ranunculaceae) � Bloodroot or red puccoon (Sanguinaria canadensis�L. Papaveraceae) ��Gangamau�(Cryptolepis sanguinolenta�(Lindl.) Schltr. Asclepiadaceae)

Cocaigne to cowboys: indigo plants, indigo blues

Chemistry of natural indigo: the formation of indigotin and related substances from indigo plants

Indigo-producing substances in the plants � Chemical process of indigo formation,

constituents of natural indigo

Dyeing with natural indigo

Dyeing with fresh leaves of indigo plants � Methods for extracting and preserving plant

indigo � Dyeing with woad or gara balls, couched woad or�sukumo�� Indigo vats of India and Iran � Indigo vats of Central and South America � The urine vat � The 'chemical' vat � The vats of the future?

Indigo plants

The major plant sources of indigo

-Indigo plants (Indigofera�spp., Leguminosai, Papilionoideae)

Indian indigo or common indigo (Indigofera tinctoria�L.) ��Platanillo�(Indigofera suffruticosa�Miller) ��Jiquilite�(Indigofera micheliana�Rose) � Natal indigo (Indigofera arrecta�Hochst. ex A. Rich.) ��Indigofera coerulea�Roxb.

-Woads (Isatis�spp., Cruciferae)

Woad (Isatis tinctoria�L.) � Chinese woad or tea indigo (Isatis indigotica�Fortune ex Lindley)

-Knotweeds (Persicaria/Polygonum�spp., Polygonacea)

Dyer's knotweed (Persicaria tinctoria�(Aiton) Spach Polygonaceae)

Indigo plants of southeast Asia

-Indigo-producing�Wrightia�spp. Apocynaceae

Pala�indigo or dyer's oleander (Wrightia tinctoria�R. Brown) ��Lanshu�(Wrightia laevis�J.D. Hooker) � Water jasmine (Wrightia religiosa�(Teijsmann & Binnendijk) Bentham) � Other�Wrightia�spp. mentioned as sources of indigo

-Indigo-producing Acanthaceae-Acanthoideae of Asia

Rum�or Assam indigo (Strobilanthes cusia�(Nees) Imlay � Indigo and blue dye-plants of the hill tribes of the Golden Triangle

-Indigo-producing Asclepiadaceae

Tarum akar�or Java indigo (Marsdenia tinctoria�R. Brown)

Indigo plants of tropical Africa

-Indigo-producing�Philenopthera�spp., Leguminosae, Papilionoideae

Gara�or Yoruba indigo or indigo vine (Philenoptera cyanescens�(Schumach. & Thonn.) Roberty) � Gambian indigo (Philenoptera laxiflora�(Guill. & Perr.) Roberty)

Indigo and blue dye-plants of tropical America

-Blue-dyeing Acanthaceae-Acanthoideae

Mohuitli�or sacatinta (Justicia spicigera�Schdl.) ��Cuaja tinta�or�tinta montes�(Justicia colorifera�V.A.W. Graham)

-Indigo-producing American Eupatorieae

Paraguay indigo or yryv�-retym� (Koanophyllon tinctorium�Arruda ex H. Kost. � Other blue-dyeing American Eupatorieae

-The indigo plant of the Lama people of Peru

Yangua�or�llangua�(Cybistax antisyphilitica�(Martius) Martius)

Into darkness: tannin plants

Brown and black dyes from Fagaceae

Pedunculate oak (Quercus robur�L.) � Durmast or sessile oak (Quercus petraea�(Mattuschka) Liebl.) � Other species of oaks used for tanning and dyeing � Other oak galls used for dyeing � Gall or Aleppo oak (Quercus infectoria�Oliv.) � Valonian or valonea/walloon oak (Quercus ithaburensis�Decne subsp.�macrolepis�(Kotschy) Hedge & Yalt.) � Chestnut or sweet chestnut (Castanea sativa�Miller)

'Reds that grow by the river': alders (Alnus�spp. (Betulaceae))

Sticky alder (Alnus glutinosa�(L.) Gaertner) � Grey alder (Alnus incana�(L.)

Moench) � Red or Oregon alder (Alnus rubra�Bongard) � Other species of alders used for dyeing

Brown and black dyes from conifers (Pinaceae)

Eastern or Canadian hemlock (Tsuga canadensis�(L.) Carr.) � Western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla�(Raf.) Sargent)

Brown and black dyes from Anacardiaceae

Sicilian sumac (Rhus coriaria�L.) ��Tizra�or Moroccan sumac (Rhus pentaphylla�(Jacq.) Desf.) � Chinese sumac (Rhus javanica�L.) � Staghorn sumac (Rhus typhina�L.) � Smooth sumac (Rhus glabra�L.) � Fragrant sumac (Rhus aromatica�Aiton) � Cyprus turpentine (Pistacia terebinthus�L.) � Mastic tree (Pistacia lentiscus�L.) ��Pistacia�galls � California pepper tree (Schinus molle�L.) ��Quebracho colorado santiague�o�or�coronillo�(Schinopsis quebracho-colorado�(Schltdl.) F.A.Barkley & T. Mey) � African grape or�npeku�(Lannea microcarpa�Engl. & K. Krause) ��Kuntunkuni�or�kobewu�(Lannea barteri�(Oliv.) Engl.) � Other species of�Lannea�used for dyeing

Brown and black dyes from Combretaceae:�bogolan�and myrobalans

African birch or�ngalama�(Anogeissus leiocarpa�(DC) Guillemin � Perrottet) � Indian sumac or�bakli�(Anogeissus latifolia�Wall.) ��Cangara�(Combretum glutinosum�Perrottet) � Chebulic myrobalan (Terminalia chebula�Retz.) � Belleric myrobalan or bedda nut tree (Terminalia bellirica�(Gaertner) Roxb.) ��Terminalia�spp. used for dyeing in Africa

Mangrove dyes and tannins

Yellow mangrove or�tengar�(Ceriops tagal�(Perr.) C. Robinson Rhizophoraceae) � Red mangrove (Rhizophora mangle�L. Rhizophoraceae) � Other mangroves used as sources of tannins and dyes

Brown and black from the pod: dyes and tannins from Leguminosae

Egyptian mimosa or�babul�acacia (Acacia nilotica�(L.) Willd. ex Del.) � Wattles: acacias used as tannins and dyes ��Divi-divi�(Caesalpinia coriaria�(Jacq.) Willd.) ��Tara�or spiny holdback (Caesalpinia spinosa�(Mol.) Kuntze) � Other species of�Caesalpinia�with tannin-rich pods

Cutch, betel, cola and�c� n�u: dye and chewing matter

Cutch tree (Acacia catechu�(L. f.) Willd. Leguminosae) � Gambier bush (Uncaria gambir�Roxb. Rubiaceae) & Dye-yam or�c� n�u�(Dioscorea cirrhosa�Lour. Dioscoreaceae) � Betel or areca palm (Areca catechu�L. Palmae) ��Cola nitida�(Cola nitida�(Vent.) Schott & Endl. Sterculiaceae)

Pomegranate: the dyers' golden apple

Pomegranate (Punica granatum�L. Punicaceae)

Dyes from lichens and fungi

Orchils and litmus: a chemical process

Manufacture of orchils; dyeing methods used with lichens and fungi

-Orchil: from identifying orchil lichens to dyeing with the different kinds of orchils

What is meant by orchil? � How to recognise an orchil-producing lichen � Orchil preparation:�Del modo de far l'orizello�� The�parelle d'Auvergne�and its Scottish cousin cudbear � Litmus, Dutch or Flemish orchil � 'French purple'

-Dyeing with 'crotal' or crottle lichens: the boiling water method

-Dyeing with fungi

Orchil lichens

-'Weeds' or 'sea orchils',�Roccella�spp., Roccellaceae

Orchil lichen (Roccella tinctoria�DC) � Canary orchil (Roccella canariensis�Darb. em. Vain.) � Lima weed (Roccella fuciformis�(L.) DC) ��Roccella phycopsis�Ach. � Exotic species of�Roccella�imported into Europe during the 19th century

-'Land' orchils:�parelle, corcur, korkje�and rock tripes

Crab's eye lichen (Ochrolechia parella�(L.) Massal Pertusariaceae) ��Parelle d'Auvergne�(Pertusaria dealbescens�Erichs. Pertusariaceae) ��Corcur�or cudbear lichen (Ochrolechia tartarea�(L.) Massal Pertusariaceae) � Rock tripe (Lasallia pustulata�(L.) M�rat Umbilicari aceae) � Peppered moon lichen (Melanelia fuliginosa�(Fr. Ex Duby) Essl. Parmeliaceae)

Crottles and lichens for dyeing by the boiling water method

-Crottles: the lichens of Scottish and Irish tweeds

Light crottle or salted shield lichen (Parmelia saxatilis�(L.) Ach. Parmeliaceae) � Dark crottle (Parmelia omphalodes�(L.) Ach. Parmeliaceae) � Other species of�Parmelia�used in dyeing � Lungwort or oak-rag (Lobaria pulmonaria�Hoffm. Lobariaceae) � Yellow wall lichen or yellow crotal (Xanthoria parietina�(L.) Th. Fr. Teloschistaceae)

-Dye lichens of the Native Americans (Parmeliaceae)

Wolf moss (Letharia vulpina�(L.) Hue) � Tumbleweed shield lichen (Xanthoparmelia chlorochroa�(Tuck.) Hale) � Beard lichens (Usnea�P. Browne ex Adanson including:�U. cavernosa�Tuck;�U. filipendula�Stirton;�U. florida�(L.) Web. ex Wigg. em. Clerc;�U. hirta�(L.) F. H. Wigg.;�U. subfloridana�Stirt.;�U. scabrata�Nyl.) � Lichen dyes in Peru and Chile

Fungi for dyeing

-Polypores in historic dye recipes (Polyporales)

Larch agaric (Laricifomes officinalis�(Vill. ex Fr.) Kotlaba � Pouzar Polyporaceae s.l.) � Tinder bracket (Fomes fomentarius�(L. ex Fr.) Fr. Polyporaceae s.l.) � Mulberry polypore (Polyporus mori�(Pollini) Fr. Polyporaceae) � Shaggy bracket or hispidus canker (Inonotus hispidus�(Bull. ex Fr.) Karsten Hymenochaetaceae) � Indian paint fungus (Echinodontium tinctorium�Ellis � Everh. Echinodontiaceae) Cinnamon bracket (Hapalopilus rutilans�(Pers. ex Fr.) Karsten Polyporaceae s.l.) � Cinnabar bracket (Pycnoporus cinnabarinus�(Jacq. ex Fr.) Karsten Coriolaceae)

-Mordanting fungus of the deserts

Desert shaggy mane or false shaggy mane (Podaxis pistillaris�(L.: Pers.) Fr. Podaxaceae)

-The rainbow fungi

Dye-maker's false puffball (Pisolithus arhizus�(Scop.: Fr.) Rauschert Sclerodermataceae) � Bloodred webcap (Cortinarius sanguineus�(W�lf.: Fr.) S. F. Gray Cortinariaceae) ��Paxillus atrotomentosus�(Batsch. ex Fr.) Fr. Paxillaceae) � Slimy spike cap (Gomphidius glutinosus�(Schaef. ex Fr.) Fr. Gomphidiaceae) � Velvet bolete (Suillus variegatus�(Sw. ex Fr.) O. Ktze.

Boletaceae) � Bovine bolete (Suillus bovinus�(Sw. ex Fr.) O. Ktze. Boletaceae) � Larch bolete (Suillus grevillei�(Klotzsch) Singer Boletaceae) � Red cracking bolete (Xerocomus chrysenteron�(Bull.) Qu�let. Boletaceae)

PART 3. DYEING ANIMALS: PURPLE-GIVING MOLLUSCS AND RED DYE SCALE INSECTS

Purple from molluscs

Chemistry of purple

Precursors of purple in molluscs � Chemistry of colour production from different purple

molluscs

Purple-dyeing techniques

Direct dyeing � Purple dyeing in Pliny: direct dye or true 'vat dye'? � Technical

developments in purple dyeing: the evidence of archaeological discoveries and dye analyses

Purple-producing molluscs

-Purple molluscs used by the ancient civilisations of the Mediterranean and the Middle East

Spiny dye-murex (Bolinus brandaris�(Linnaeus, 1758) Muricidae, Muricinae) � Banded dye-murex (Hexaplex (Trunculariopsis) trunculus�(Linnaeus, 1758) Muricidae, Muricinae) � Red-mouthed rockshell (Stramonita haemastoma�(Linnaeus, 1766) Muricidae, Rapaninae) ��Thais savignyi�(Deshayes, 1844) Muricidae, Rapaninae)

-Purple molluscs used by the ancient civilisations of the British Isles and Brittany

Sting winkle or oyster drill (Ocenebra erinaceus�(Linnaeus, 1758) Muricidae,

Ocenebrinae) � Dog-whelk (Nucella lapillus�(Linnaeus, 1758) Muricidae, Ocenebrinae)

-Purple molluscs used by native American peoples

Wide-mouthed rockshell of the Pacific coast (Plicopurpura patula�subsp.�pansa�(Gould, 1853) Muricidae, Rapaninae) � Wide-mouthed rockshell of the Atlantic coast (Plicopurpura patula�(Linnaeus, 1758) Muricidae, Rapaninae) � Kiosque rockshell (Thais kiosquiformis�(Duclos, 1832) Muricidae, Rapaninae) � Red-mouthed rockshell of the eastern Pacific (Stramonita biserialis�(de Blainville, 1832) Muricidae, Rapaninae) ��Chanque, loco�or�pata de burro�(Concholepas concholepas�(Brugui�re, 1789) Muricidae, Rapaninae) � Chocolate rockshell (Stramonita chocolata�(Duclos, 1832) Muricidae, Rapaninae) � Trinidad rockshell (Thais coronata�(Lamarck, 1816) Muricidae,

Rapaninae)

-Purple in Japan

Akanishi�(Rapana venosa�(Valenciennes, 1846) Muricidae, Rapaninae) ��Chirimenbora�(Rapana bezoar�(Linnaeus, 1767)Muricidae, Rapaninae) ��Ibonishi�(Thais clavigera�(K�ster, 1860) Muricidae, Rapaninae)

-Purple in Asia: prospects for further research

Vermilion, scarlet and crimson: scale insect sources of anthraquinone dyes

A mystery resolved: dyer's kermes

Dyer's kermes (Kermes vermilio�(Planchon, 1864) Homoptera: Coccoidea: Kermesidae)

American cochineals (Homoptera: Coccoidea: Dactylopiidae)

Domestic cochineal (Dactylopius coccus�(O. Costa, 1835)) � Wild South American cochineal (Dactylopius ceylonicus�(Green, 1896)) � Sylvester cochineals (Dactylopius confusus�(Cockerell, 1893) and�Dactylopius opuntiae�(Cockerell, 1896))

The crimson-dyeing scale insects of the Old World (Homoptera: Coccoidea: Margarodidae)

Polish carmine scale insect or Polish cochineal (Porphyrophora polonica�(Linnaeus, 1758)) and�Porphyrophora crithmi�(Goux, 1938)) � Armenian carmine scale insect or Armenian cochineal (Porphyrophora hamelii�(Brandt, 1833)) � Sophora carmine scale insect (Porphyrophora sophorae�(Archangelskaja, 1935)) � Egyptian carmine scale insect (Porphyrophora hirsutissima�(Hall, 1924))

Lac insects (Homoptera: Coccoidea: Tachardiidae)

Common or Indian lac insect (Kerria lacca�(Kerr, 1782)) � Chinese lac insect (Kerria chinensis�(Mahdihassan, 1923))

Chemical appendix

Notes

List of references

Index of scientific names of dye sources

Index of vernacular names of dye sources