Reflection on knowledge is often assumed to have emerged with Greek philosophy. Earlier and contemporary modes of thinking in the ancient Near East, including ancient Israel, are assumed to be archaic and often left out of the picture. Against this view, the contributors of this volume aim to reconstruct the ancient epistemologies, the »paradigms«, »discourses«, and »episteme«, that developed in the ancient Near Eastern and Mediterranean region and formed the conditions for developing more distinct forms of cultural and scientific knowledge. In doing this, they include the search for second order thinking as part of ancient epistemologies: the capability to think about thinking, to adopt a theoretical attitude that involves the ability to reflect and self-reflect, to criticize and transcend the given, and to anticipate new realms by thinking outside the box. The ancient Near Eastern cultures were not characterized by a 'lukewarm mind' but they were capable, in their own cultural-specific ways, of unfolding epistemologies that included forms of second order thinking that may well be termed 'early philosophy'.